Quantifying the Bullwhip Effect in closed-loop supply chains: The interplay of information transparencies, return rates, and lead times

The Bullwhip Effect manifests itself in the form of an increased order and inventory variability in the uppermost nodes of the supply chain. This dynamic phenomenon is not yet well understood in closed-loop supply chain settings, despite their growing importance in modern societies pursuing circular economy opportunities. Indeed, the problem-specific literature has provided somewhat conflicting findings. To better understand the Bullwhip Effect...