Indirect Negative Impacts of Double-crested Cormorant (Phalacrocorax auritus) Management on Co-nesting Caspian Terns (Hydroprogne caspia) in Northern Lake Michigan, USA

Hat Island, Lake Michigan, Michigan, USA, is an important historical breeding location for Caspian Terns (Hydroprogne caspia) and other co-nesting species, including Double-crested Cormorants (Phalacrocorax auritus). Although a bird sanctuary of the Michigan Islands National Wildlife Refuge, Double-crested Cormorant management (egg oiling and killing adults) was allowed on Hat Island in 2010; in 2011 and 2012, management actions were restricted...