Metal supply constraints for a low-carbon economy?

Low-carbon energy systems are more metal-intensive than traditional energy systems. Concerns have been expressed that this may hamper the transition to a low-carbon economy. We estimate the required extraction of Fe, Al, Cu, Ni, Cr, In, Nd, Dy, Li, Zn, and Pb until 2050 under several technology-specific low-carbon scenarios. Annual metal demand for the electricity and road transportation systems may rise dramatically for indium, neodymium,...