Timing of androgen receptor disruption and estrogen exposure underlies a spectrum of congenital penile anomalies

Significance Birth defects of external genitalia occur at a striking frequency, affecting ∼1:250 live births. Congenital penile anomalies (CPAs) encompass a range of malformations, including failure of urethral tube closure (hypospadias), penile curvature (chordee), micropenis, and feminization of male genitalia. Both genetic anomalies and exposures to endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) are suspected to be involved; however, little is known...