Regulation and therapeutic strategies of 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal metabolism in heart disease

4-Hydroxy-2-nonenal (4-HNE), a reactive aldehyde, is generated from polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) in biological membranes. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated during oxidative stress react with PUFAs to form aldehydes like 4-HNE, which inactivates proteins and DNA by forming hybrid covalent chemical addition compounds called adducts. The ensuing chain reaction results in cellular dysfunction and tissue damage. It includes a wide...